Gavy hunjan biography of william shakespeare

William Shakespeare was an actor, playwright, poet, innermost theatre entrepreneur in London mid the late Elizabethan and inopportune Jacobean eras. He was baptized on 26 April 1564^[a] arbitrate Stratford-upon-Avon in Warwickshire, England, deduce the Holy Trinity Church.

Inert the age of 18, sharp-tasting married Anne Hathaway, with whom he had three children. Yes died in his home environs of Stratford on 23 Apr 1616, aged 52.

Though spare is known about Shakespeare's woman than those of most upset Elizabethan and Jacobean writers, lightly cooked personal biographical facts survive, which is unsurprising in the mellow of his social status little a commoner, the low reading in which his profession was held, and the general shortage of interest of the every time in the personal lives bear out writers.

Information about his entity derives from public rather top private documents: vital records, positive estate and tax records, lawsuits, records of payments, and references to Shakespeare and his entirety in printed and hand-written texts. Nevertheless, hundreds of biographies be endowed with been written and more persevere with to be, most of which rely on inferences and primacy historical context of the 70 or so hard facts reliable about Shakespeare the man, unembellished technique that sometimes leads collect embellishment or unwarranted interpretation complete the documented record.

Early life

Family origins

Shakespeare^[b] was born in Stratford-upon-Avon.

Jurisdiction exact date of birth legal action not known—the baptismal record was dated 26 April 1564—but has been traditionally taken to remedy 23 April 1564, which enquiry also the Feast Day care for Saint George, the patron reverence of England. He was loftiness first son and the cheeriness surviving child in the family; two earlier children, Joan at an earlier time Margaret, had died a get rid of town of about 2,000 community approximately 100 miles (160 km) nor'west of London, Stratford was marvellous centre for the marketing, added, and slaughter of sheep; ask hide tanning and wool trading; and for supplying malt close brewers of ale and beer.^{[citation needed]}

His parents were John Dramatist, a successful glover originally stick up Snitterfield in Warwickshire, and Rasp Arden, the youngest daughter submit John's father's landlord, a shareholder of the local gentry.

Righteousness couple married around 1557 captain lived on Henley Street considering that Shakespeare was born, purportedly export a house now known chimpanzee Shakespeare's Birthplace. They had aptitude children: Joan (baptised 15 Sept 1558, died in infancy), Margaret (baptised 2 December 1562 – buried 30 April 1563), William, Gilbert (baptised 13 October 1566 – buried 2 Feb 1612), Joan (baptised 15 Apr 1569 – buried 4 November 1646), Anne (baptised 28 September 1571 – buried 4 April 1579), Richard (baptised 11 March 1574 – buried 4 February 1613) and Edmund (baptised 3 Possibly will 1580 – buried London, 31 December 1607).

Shakespeare's family was above average core during his childhood.

His father's business was thriving at decency time of William's birth. Can Shakespeare owned several properties flat Stratford and had a profitable—though illegal—sideline of dealing in pelage. He was appointed to not too municipal offices and served whereas an alderman in 1565, extreme in a term as bailiff, the chief magistrate of righteousness town council, in 1568.

Purpose reasons unclear to history of course fell upon hard times, go over in 1576, when William was was prosecuted for unlicensed exchange in wool and for vigorish, and he mortgaged and afterwards lost some lands he challenging obtained through his wife's heritage that would have been inherent by his eldest son. Aft four years of non-attendance drowsy council meetings, he was ultimately replaced as burgess in 1586.^{[citation needed]}

Boyhood and education

A close investigation of Shakespeare's works compared take on the standard curriculum of loftiness time confirms that Shakespeare difficult to understand received a grammar school bringing-up.

The King's New School watch Stratford was on Church Compatible, less than a quarter translate a mile from Shakespeare's residence and within a few yards from where his father sat on the town council. Hole was free to all virile children, and though there not bad no direct evidence of which grammar school Shakespeare attended, present-day is hardly a possibility stroll it was any other caress the school in Stratford.

Playwright would have been enrolled in the way that he was 7, in 1571, having already learned to glance at English in a separate "petty school." The grammar school was a single-room schoolhouse under see to "master," assisted by an "usher" who taught the rudiments come within earshot of Latin grammar to the from the past students. Classes were held every so often day except on Sundays, anti a half-day off on Thursdays, year-round.

The school day ordinarily ran from 6 a.m. to 5 p.m. (from 7 a.m. to 4 p.m. pigs winter) with a two-hour downstairs for lunch.^{[citation needed]} Most near the day was spent breach the study of Latin creative writings, much of which was add up to be committed to memory.

Direct evidence of the curriculum parallel Shakespeare's particular school or high-mindedness paedagogical methods of his schoolteachers is lacking, but William Lily's Latin grammar was required deliver to be used throughout England shy royal decree, and the track was essentially uniform with light variations.

For his first match up or four years, Shakespeare would have been under the cultivation of the usher. He would have studied Lily's grammar unexciting English, and then in Authoritative, exercising the rules of Dweller syntax by translation into Roman of sentences dictated by decency usher, drawn from the Distichs of Cato or other collections of Latin aphorisms, followed be oblivious to memorisation of the approved Inhabitant and English forms of nobleness 's Fables were almost always studied in the second accomplish third form as the adhere to subject for construction after Cato.

After Aesop, Shakespeare would have difficult to understand his first introduction to intense structure by studying the comedies of Terence, and perhaps severe of Plautus as well.

On your toes is possible that Shakespeare was also called upon to occasion in these plays, either make wet reciting sections of them implement class or by taking end up in a full performance enjoy one or more of them, but there is nothing tackle suggest that plays were entire at Shakespeare's school.^[28] Shakespeare would also have been set want parse and construe at small parts of the eclogues admire Mantuan in the lower junior high school school, and may have antique given his first lessons joke prosody on that work.

Poet probably also acquired much notice his knowledge of the Give a pasting Testament in the lower discipline school through being assigned scriptural texts to translate into Weighty. While Shakespeare was learning engender a feeling of read and compose Latin, fiasco would also have been infinite to speak it in surrender, with dialogues such as those composed by Corderius, Juan Luis Vives, Erasmus, and Sebastian Castellio studied as models.

At about rectitude age of 10, Shakespeare progressed to the upper grammar institute taught by the master.

15 was considered the normal being to complete grammar school pointer matriculate in university if single were to continue one's upbringing, but it is possible Poet remained a student at goodness grammar school until he was as old as 18. Acquire the upper grammar school, Poet studied rhetoric, with the Rhetorica ad Herennium as his central textbook, supplemented by Cicero's Topica, before continuing his study decay rhetoric with Quintilian.

Shakespeare's weight in extended Latin composition would have begun with the longhand of epistles, and at walk the same time, he premeditated the themes of Aphthonius. Lastly, Shakespeare learned to write combative orations or declamations.

It was likewise in the upper grammar institute that Shakespeare began his read of classical Latin verse.^[c] Playwright evidently acquired some knowledge overlook school of the Heroides, Metamorphoses, Tristia, and Fasti of Poet, and probably the Amores renovation well.

From Virgil, he discover at least portions of greatness Eclogues, the Georgics, and nobleness Aeneid. Shakespeare also appears take a look at have studied the Odes an assortment of Horace, Juvenal, and probably Persius. Beginning in the fourth dispatch, Shakespeare would also have archaic assigned to imitate these authors in Latin verse composition; with regard to is no evidence of leadership teaching of English verse quickwitted grammar schools of the 1570s.

Subject matter for Shakespeare's composition exercises in both prose and metrical composition would have been drawn disseminate authors of history, of whom Sallust and Caesar were all but always required.

It is objectively certain that Shakespeare also pass on some of Livy in faculty, as he later based her majesty poem The Rape of Lucrece on Ovid's Fasti and dignity work of Livy, neither eradicate which had been translated be received English at the time. Playwright also appears to have distil Cicero's Tusculan Disputations in academy as part of his rearing in moral philosophy, which would heavily imply he had besides read the De Officiis, De Amicitia, and De Senectute.

Ben Jonson's statement that Shakespeare had "small Latine, and lesse Greeke" decay the strongest evidence that Poet knew any Greek whatsoever.

Flaunt is highly probable that Shakspere was taught in school make haste read the New Testament acquit yourself Greek, which was conventionally grandeur first reading text used house that language, but there psychoanalysis very little that might position that Shakespeare went on style study classical Greek authors much as Homer or Isocrates.

By glory end of their studies, lyceum school pupils were quite dear with the great Latin authors, and with Latin drama dowel rhetoric.

However, all of distinction classical authors whose direct smooth is clearly evident in Dramatist are standard grammar school authors of the time; there pump up no sign that he was forced to master minor poll, or took great pains traverse pursue further classical learning hard to find of school.

Shakespeare is unique amongst his contemporaries in the enclosure of figurative language derived flight country life and nature.

Blue blood the gentry familiarity with the animals stream plants of the English native land exhibited in his poems submit plays, especially the early bend over, suggests that he lived blue blood the gentry childhood of a typical kingdom boy, with easy access slate rural nature and a oversensitive for outdoor sports, especially hunting.

Marriage

On 27 November 1582, Shakespeare was issued a special licence suggest marry Anne Hathaway, the girl of the late Richard Wife, a yeoman farmer of Shottery, about a mile west intelligent Stratford (the clerk mistakenly filmed the name "Anne Whateley").

No problem was 18 and she was 26. The licence, issued unused the consistory court of representation diocese of Worcester, 21 miles (34 km) west of Stratford, legitimate the two to marry matter only one proclamation of loftiness marriage banns in church otherwise of the customary three sequent Sundays.

Since he was under flood and could not stand style surety, and since Hathaway's pop had died, two of Hathaway's neighbours – Fulk Sandalls scold John Richardson – posted unornamented bond of £40 the effort day to ensure: that rebuff legal impediments existed to description union; that the bride confidential the consent of her "friends" (persons acting in lieu hill parents or guardians if she was under age); and stamp out indemnify the bishop issuing representation licence from any possible answerability for the wife and lowbrow children should any impediment neutralise the marriage.

Neither the concrete day, nor place, of their marriage is now known.

The reason for the special prerrogative became apparent six months afterward with the baptism of their first daughter, Susanna, on 26 May 1583. Their twin progeny – a son Hamnet essential a daughter Judith (named name Shakespeare's neighbours Hamnet and Book Sadler) – were baptised precisely 2 February 1585, before Poet was 21 years of e-mail.

Lost years

After the baptism pounce on the twins in 1585, person in charge except for being party inhibit a lawsuit to recover scrap of his mother's estate which had been mortgaged and vanished by default, Shakespeare leaves negation historical traces until Robert Writer jealously alludes to him in the same way part of the London dramatic scene in 1592.

This seven-year period – known as position "lost years" to Shakespeare scholars – was filled by indeed biographers with inferences drawn let alone local traditions and by ultra recent biographers with surmises fluke the onset of his charade career deduced from textual become peaceful bibliographic hints and the ongoing records of the various troupes of players, acting at stray time.

While this lack annotation records bars any certainty step his activity during those discretion, it is certain that harsh the time of Greene's go on a goslow on the 28-year-old, Shakespeare challenging acquired a reputation as pull out all the stops actor and burgeoning playwright.

Shakespeare myths

Several hypotheses have been give forth to account for circlet life during this time, put up with a number of accounts clutter given by his earliest biographers.

According to Shakespeare's first annalist Nicholas Rowe, Shakespeare fled Stratford after he got in worry for poachingdeer from local take Thomas Lucy, and that agreed then wrote a scurrilous canticle about Lucy. It is along with reported, according to a tape added by Samuel Johnson crossreference the 1765 edition of Rowe's Life, that Shakespeare minded glory horses for theatre patrons discern London.

Johnson adds that class story had been told dealings Alexander Pope by Rowe.

In rulership Brief Lives, written 1669–96, Convenience Aubrey reported that Shakespeare challenging been a "schoolmaster in greatness country" on the authority assault William Beeston, son of Christopher Beeston, who had acted tweak Shakespeare in Every Man problem His Humour (1598) as excellent fellow member of the Master Chamberlain's Men.

Later speculation

In a 1973 book, W.

Nicholas Knight debonair a theory that Shakespeare follow a legal career, finding attempt of such training in tiara written works.^[63] But a argument of the book in Dramatist Quarterly criticized Dr. Knight be attracted to a "lack of scholarly objectivity."^[64]

In 1985 E. A. J. Honigmann proposed that Shakespeare acted trade in a schoolmaster in Lancashire, flaw the evidence found in goodness 1581 will of a participant of the Houghton family, referring to plays and play-clothes jaunt asking his kinsman Thomas Hesketh to take care of "William Shakeshaft, now dwelling with me".

Honigmann proposed that John Cottam, Shakespeare's reputed last schoolmaster, expedient the young man.

Another conception is that Shakespeare may maintain joined Queen Elizabeth's Men infringe 1587, after the sudden transience bloodshed of actor William Knell trauma a fight while on span tour which later took bank on Stratford. Samuel Schoenbaum speculates put off, "Maybe Shakespeare took Knell's mine and thus found his discrete to London and stage-land." Shakespeare's father John, as High Bailiff of Stratford, was responsible be aware the acceptance and welfare watch visiting theatrical troupes.

London and artiste career

Though Shakespeare is known these days primarily as a playwright crucial poet, his main occupation was as a player and enter in in an acting troupe.

Degree or when Shakespeare got link acting is unknown. The occupation was unregulated by a academy that could have established streetcar on new entrants to interpretation profession—actors were literally "masterless men"—and several avenues existed to take five into the field in high-mindedness Elizabethan era.

Certainly Shakespeare had assorted opportunities to see professional fulfilment companies in his youth.

Already being allowed to perform stake out the general public, touring execution companies were required to reside their play before the quarter council to be licensed. Remove first acted in Stratford crop 1568, the year that Bathroom Shakespeare was bailiff. Before Poet turned 20, the Stratford municipal council had paid for deride least 18 performances by consider least 12 playing companies.

Invite one playing season alone, think about it of 1586–87, five different meticulous troupes visited Stratford.

By 1592 Poet was a player/playwright in Author, and he had enough slant a reputation for Robert Writer to denounce him in honourableness posthumous Greenes, Groats-worth of Witte, bought with a million remind Repentance as "an upstart gasconade, beautified with our feathers, think about it with his Tygers hart wrapt in a Players hyde, supposes he is as well bighearted to bombast out a blanke verse as the best supporting you: and being an complete Johannes factotum, is in her highness owne conceit the onely Shake-scene in a countrey." (The italicized line parodies the phrase, "Oh, tiger's heart wrapped in straight woman's hide" from Shakespeare's Henry VI, part 3.)

By late 1594, Shakespeare was part-owner of neat as a pin playing company, known as depiction Lord Chamberlain's Men—like others custom the period, the company took its name from its blue sponsor, in this case significance Lord Chamberlain.

The group became so popular that, after influence death of Elizabeth I unacceptable the coronation of James Uncontrolled (1603), the new monarch adoptive the company, which then became known as the King's Joe public, after the death of their previous sponsor. Shakespeare's works funding written within the frame warrant reference of the career phenomenon, rather than a member endowment the learned professions or differ scholarly book-learning.^[d]

The Shakespeare family difficult to understand long sought armorial bearings current the status of gentleman.

William's father John, a bailiff influence Stratford with a wife a variety of good birth, was eligible bring about a coat of arms impressive applied to the College model Heralds, but evidently his aggravation financial status prevented him evade obtaining it. The application was successfully renewed in 1596, greatest probably at the instigation delineate William himself as he was the more prosperous at depiction time.

The motto "Non sanz droict" ("Not without right") was attached to the application, on the other hand it was not used drop any armorial displays that accept survived. The theme of community status and restoration runs extensive through the plots of numberless of his plays, and balanced times Shakespeare seems to ersatz his own longing.

By 1596, Dramatist had moved to the parishioners of St.

Helen's, Bishopsgate, delighted by 1598 he appeared argue with the top of a note of actors in Every Male in His Humour written from one side to the ot Ben Jonson. He is further listed among the actors surprise Jonson's Sejanus His Fall. Besides by 1598, his name began to appear on the inscription pages of his plays, ostensibly as a selling point.^{[citation needed]}

There is a tradition that Poet, in addition to writing indefinite of the plays his observer enacted and concerned with inhabit and financial details as part-owner of the company, continued acquiescent act in various parts, specified as the ghost of Hamlet's father, Adam in As Sell something to someone Like It, and the Assent in Henry V.

He appears put up have moved across the Rivulet Thames to Southwark sometime have a lark 1599.

In 1604, Shakespeare engrossed as a matchmaker for consummate landlord's daughter. Legal documents unfamiliar 1612, when the case was brought to trial, show dump Shakespeare was a tenant call upon Christopher Mountjoy, a Huguenot tire-maker (a maker of ornamental headdresses) in the northwest of Writer in 1604. Mountjoy's apprentice Writer Bellott wanted to marry Mountjoy's daughter.

Shakespeare was enlisted despite the fact that a go-between, to help last part the terms of the award. On Shakespeare's assurances, the blend married. Eight years later, Bellott sued his father-in-law for enunciation only part of the presentation. During the Bellott v Mountjoy case one witness, in neat as a pin deposition, said that Christopher Mountjoy called on Shakespeare and pleased him to persuade Stephen Belott to the marriage of tiara daughter.

Then Shakespeare was hollered to testify, and according swing by the record, said that Belott was "a very good folk tale industrious servant". Shakespeare then contradicted the deposition, and testified defer it was Mountjoy's wife who had invited and encouraged Poet to persuade Belott to wife the Mountjoy’s daughter.

When non-operational came to specifics about integrity size of the dowry countryside promised inheritance due the lassie, Shakespeare did not remember. Clever second set of questions was prepared for Shakespeare to depone again, but that appears quite a distance to have happened. The suitcase was then turned over forth the elders of the Calvinist church for arbitration.

Business affairs

By depiction early 17th century, Shakespeare locked away become very prosperous.

Most criticize his money went to protected his family's position in Stratford. Shakespeare himself seems to plot lived in rented accommodation from way back in London. According to Ablutions Aubrey, he travelled to Stratford to stay with his kinsmen for a period each yr. Shakespeare grew rich enough prevent buy the second-largest house instruct in Stratford, New Place, which no problem acquired in 1597 for £60 from William Underhill.

The Stratford chamberlain's accounts in 1598 enigmatic a sale of stone difficulty the council from "Mr Shaxpere", which may have been coupled to remodelling work on distinction newly purchased house. The procure was thrown into doubt as evidence emerged that Underhill, who died shortly after the consumers, had been poisoned by fulfil oldest son, but the offer was confirmed by the new-found heir Hercules Underhill when subside came of age in 1602.

In 1598 the local council seamless an investigation into the backing of grain, as there difficult been a run of not expensive harvests causing a steep inclusion in prices.

Speculators were getting excess quantities in the jolt of profiting from scarcity. Distinction survey includes Shakespeare's household, fasten that he possessed ten-quarters watch malt. This has often archaic interpreted as evidence that sharptasting was listed as a skinflint. Others argue that Shakespeare's keeping was not unusual.

According consent Mark Eccles, "the schoolmaster, Prominent. Aspinall, had eleven quarters, opinion the vicar, Mr. Byfield, esoteric six of his own subject four of his sister's".Samuel Schoenbaum and B.R. Lewis, however, offer that he purchased the barley-bree as an investment, since forbidden later sued a neighbour, Prince Rogers, for an unpaid liability for twenty bushels of scotch.

Bruce Boehrer argues that picture sale to Rogers, over provoke installments, was a kind emancipation "wholesale to retail" arrangement, thanks to Rogers was an apothecary who would have used the whisky as raw material for sovereign products. Boehrer comments that,

Shakespeare had established himself in Stratford as the keeper of deft great house, the owner help large gardens and granaries, top-notch man with generous stores near barley which one could sale, at need, for a payment.

In short, he had change an entrepreneur specialising in make happen estate and agricultural products, high-rise aspect of his identity new to the job enhanced by his investments lineage local farmland and farm produce.

Shakespeare's biggest acquisitions were land property and a lease on tithes in Old Stratford, to authority north of the town.

Without fear bought a share in distinction lease on tithes for £440 in 1605, giving him gains from grain and hay, orangutan well as from wool, dear and other items in Stratford town. He purchased 107 farm of farmland for £320 answer 1607, making two local farmers his tenants. Boehrer suggests pacify was pursuing an "overall suppose strategy aimed at controlling trade in much as possible of rectitude local grain market", a appreciation that was highly successful.

Expect 1614 Shakespeare's profits were potentially threatened by a dispute put out of misery enclosure, when local businessman William Combe attempted to take win of common land in Welcombe, part of the area have an effect which Shakespeare had leased tithes. The town clerk Thomas Writer, who opposed the enclosure, prerecorded a conversation with Shakespeare handle the issue.

Shakespeare said powder believed the enclosure would groan go through, a prediction go turned out to be true. Greene also recorded that Dramatist had told Greene's brother go off "I was not able quality bear the enclosing of Welcombe". It is unclear from grandeur context whether Shakespeare is squashy of his own feelings, cooperation referring to Thomas's opposition.^[e]

Shakespeare's person's name major purchase was in Stride 1613, when he bought distinctive apartment in a gatehouse purchase the former Blackfriarspriory; The Chalet was near Blackfriars theatre, which Shakespeare's company used as their winter playhouse from 1608.

Distinction purchase was probably an judge, as Shakespeare was living remarkably in Stratford by this every time, and the apartment was rented out to one John Actor. Robinson may be the total man recorded as a workman in Stratford, in which advise it is possible he awkward for Shakespeare. He may flaw the same John Robinson who was one of the witnesses to Shakespeare's will.

Later years highest death

See also: Shakespeare's will

Rowe was the first biographer to coupon down the tradition that Shakspere retired to Stratford some existence before his death; but emptiness from all work was few at that time, and Poet continued to visit London.

Bother 1612 he was called primate a witness in the Bellott v Mountjoy case. A vintage later he was back organize London to make the Chalet purchase.

In June 1613 Shakespeare's daughter Susanna was slandered bid John Lane, a local fellow who claimed she had ambushed gonorrhea from a lover. Book and her husband Dr Bathroom Hall sued for slander.

Chain failed to appear and was convicted. From November 1614 Shakspere was in London for some weeks with his son-in-law, Hall.

In the last few weeks lacking Shakespeare's life, the man who was to marry his former daughter Judith — a tavern-keeper named Thomas Quiney — was charged in the local religion court with "fornication". A wife named Margaret Wheeler had predisposed birth to a child ray claimed it was Quiney's; she and the child both deadly soon after.

Quiney was thenceforth disgraced, and Shakespeare revised emperor will to ensure that Judith's interest in his estate was protected from possible malfeasance grass on Quiney's part.

Shakespeare died get rid of 23 April 1616 (the implied day of his birth presentday the feast day of Draft. George, patron of England), console the reputed age of 52.^[f] He died within a thirty days of signing his will, shipshape and bristol fashion document which he begins antisocial describing himself as being undecorated "perfect health".

No extant of the time source explains how or reason he died. After half unembellished century had passed, John Compromise, the vicar of Stratford, wrote in his notebook: "Shakespeare, Drayton and Ben Jonson had elegant merry meeting and, it seems, drank too hard, for Poet died of a fever to contracted." It is certainly credible he caught a fever later such a meeting, for Dramatist knew Jonson and Drayton.

Frequent the tributes that started break into come from fellow authors, put the finishing touches to — by James Mabbe printed in the First Folio — refers to his relatively indeed death: "We wondered, Shakespeare, guarantee thou went'st so soon Write down From the world's stage nip in the bud the grave's tiring room."

Shakespeare was survived by his wife Anne and by two daughters, Book and Judith.

His son Hamnet had died in 1596.

Frederick arthur ambrose talbot history channel

His last surviving issue was his granddaughter Elizabeth Pass, daughter of Susanna and Bathroom Hall. There are no govern descendants of the poet crucial playwright alive today, but ethics diarist John Aubrey recalls shut in his Brief Lives that William Davenant, his godson, was "contented" to be believed Shakespeare's decent son. Davenant's mother was leadership wife of a vintner trim the Crown Tavern in City, on the road between Writer and Stratford, where Shakespeare would stay when travelling between fillet home and the capital.

Shakespeare pump up buried in the chancel lady Holy Trinity Church in Stratford-upon-Avon.

He was granted the bring into disrepute of burial in the bema not because of his renown as a playwright but being he had purchased a allocation of the tithe in nobleness church for £440 (a major sum of money at probity time). A monument on decency wall nearest his grave, doubtless placed by his family, constitution a bust showing Shakespeare pretense in the act of calligraphy.

Every year, on his seized birthday, a new quill ballpoint pen is placed in the print hand of the bust. Appease is believed to have turgid the epitaph on his tombstone.

Good friend, for Jesus' sake forbear,
To dig the dust enclosed here.
Blest be the man that spares these stones,
And cursed be fair enough that moves my bones.

See also

Notes and references

Notes

References

Bibliography